Antimicrobial Photopolymers for Vat Photopolymerisation: Mechanisms, Efficacy Testing, Leaching and Durability
Segurola, Juan
2026-08-21 · Report · Version 1.4
Vat photopolymerisation (VPP) enables digitally fabricated polymer parts with controlled geometry, but antimicrobial function introduces an additional set of coupled variables. Metal and metal-oxide fillers can provide ion-mediated or contact-associated activity; covalently incorporated cationic groups can create contact-active surfaces; releasable agents can generate sustained or transient antimicrobial effects; zwitterionic chemistries can reduce fouling without necessarily killing microorganisms; and photosensitising systems can create on-demand activity under a specified illumination protocol. Each route interacts with resin viscosity, optical attenuation, conversion, surface composition, post-curing and ageing. Published VPP studies demonstrate antimicrobial activity using silver, copper, cuprous oxide, zinc-containing fillers, quaternary ammonium chemistry, chitosan derivatives, cetylpyridinium chloride and photo-responsive additives, but they also show trade-offs in mechanical properties, optical behaviour, cytotoxicity and durability. This review organises the field around six qualification questions: what mechanism is intended; what microbial endpoint is measured; whether the activity depends on release; whether the printed state preserves the mechanism; whether efficacy survives realistic ageing or cleaning; and whether the biological and chemical profile is compatible with the intended use. Standards including ISO 22196, ISO 21702 and ASTM E2149 are positioned according to what they do and do not establish. A minimum reporting framework is proposed for antimicrobial VPP studies, with explicit separation of antibacterial, antibiofilm, antifungal and antiviral claims. The objective is not to rank formulations, but to provide a defensible architecture for evidence-based antimicrobial claims in printed photopolymer systems.